பாரசீகத்தை பொமு 5ம் நூற்றாண்டில் ஆட்சி செய்த மன்னர் தரியூஸ் என்பவர் கல்லறை உள்ளது, அதில் அவர் இன்றைய இமய மலை அருகில் உள்ள காந்தாரப் பகுதியை ஹி(ந்)து என அழைக்கிறார்.
Tomb of Darius the Great
Coordinates: 29°59′20″N 52°52′29″E
One of the tombs is explicitly identified by an accompanying inscription to be the tomb of Darius I (r. 522–486 BCE). The other three tombs are believed to be those of Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BCE), Artaxerxes I (r. 465–424 BCE), and Darius II (r. 423–404 BCE); the fifth tomb (incomplete) might be that of Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BCE) or the last Achaemenid king, Darius III (r. 336–330 BCE). The tombs were looted extensively following the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great.
DNa inscription:An inscription by Darius I, dating from c. 490 BCE and generally referred to as the "DNa inscription" (Darius Naqsh-i Rostam inscription "a") in scholarly works, appears in the top-left corner of the façade of his tomb and mentions his conquests as well as his various achievements. Its exact date is not known, but it is assumed to be from the last decade of his reign. Like several other of Darius' inscriptions, the territories controlled by the Achaemenid Persian Empire (which reached its territorial zenith under Darius' rule) are clearly listed.
A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Darius king, one king of many, one lord of many.
I am Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries containing all kinds of men, king in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage.
King Darius says: By the favor of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandhara [Gadâra], India [Hiduš], the haoma-drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks [Yaunâ], the Scythians across the sea [Sakâ], Thrace, the petasos-wearing Greeks [Yaunâ], the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians.
King Darius says: Ahuramazda, when he saw this earth in commotion, thereafter bestowed it upon me, made me king; I am king. By the favor of Ahuramazda I put it down in its place; what I said to them, that they did, as was my desire.
If now you shall think that "How many are the countries which King Darius held?" look at the sculptures [of those] who bear the throne, then shall you know, then shall it become known to you: the spear of a Persian man has gone forth far; then shall it become known to you: a Persian man has delivered battle far indeed from Persia.
Darius the King says: This which has been done, all that by the will of Ahuramazda I did. Ahuramazda bore me aid, until I did the work. May Ahuramazda protect me from harm, and my royal house, and this land: this I pray of Ahuramazda, this may Ahuramazda give to me!
O man, that which is the command of Ahuramazda, let this not seem repugnant to you; do not leave the right path; do not rise in rebellion! — DNa inscription of Darius
மெகஸ்தனிஸ் பொமு.3ம் நூற்றாண்டில் எழுதிய இந்திய பயண நூலின் பெயர் "இந்திகா"
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இஸ்ரேலின் எபிரேயப் புராணக் கதை பைபிள் கதைகளில் இந்த தரியூ உண்டு, ஆனால் பைபிள் கதைகளில் உள்ள சம்பவம் எல்லாமே முழு கப்சா என அறிஞர்கள் தெளிவாக ஏற்கவே இவை உதவியதுபாரசீக ஆட்சி கீழே இரண்டாவது ஆலயம் கட்டப் பட்டது எனக் கதை, தொல்லியல்படியாக ஜெருசலேம் இந்தக் காலத்தில் மக்கள் குடியேற்றம் மிகவும் குறைவு, எந்தக் கட்டுமானமும் இந்தக் காலத்தில் நடக்கவே இல்லை.
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The Darius Naqsh-e Rostam inscription is an inscription made by the Achaemenid king Darius I, also known as Darius the Great, who ruled from 522 to 486 BC. The inscription is carved into the face of a cliff located at Naqsh-e Rostam, a site located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis in Iran. The inscription is written in Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian, and describes Darius' genealogy, conquests, and political achievements. It also includes a list of the 23 provinces of the Persian Empire and the governors appointed to rule them.
The inscription is considered one of the most important primary sources for understanding the history of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and Darius' reign. It is also notable for its monumental size and the grandeur of its location, which was likely intended to convey the power and authority of the Persian king to his subjects and to visitors to the site.
Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni
The treaty between the Hittites and Mitanni is a historical document that records the treaty of alliance between the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I and the Mitanni king Shattiwaza. The treaty was signed in the 14th century BC, during the Late Bronze Age. The treaty is known from the Hittite version, which was discovered in the archives of the Hittite capital at Hattusa.
The treaty is a peace treaty and alliance against the Egypt, which was seen as a common enemy. It also includes a provision for the extradition of fugitives and mutual assistance in case of war. The treaty also includes a marriage alliance, with the daughter of the Hittite king being given in marriage to the son of the Mitanni king.
 | This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. (April 2020) |
Some loanwords in the variant of the Hurrian language spoken in the Mitanni kingdom, during the 2nd millennium BCE, are identifiable as originating in an Indo-Aryan language; these are considered to constitute an Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni (or in Mitanni Hurrian). The words in question are theonyms, proper names and technical terminology related to horses (hippological).[1]
It is generally believed that a militarily powerful, nomadic Indo-Aryan elite, known as the Maryannu, settled in Mitanni, and came to politically dominate the indigenous population, while also adopting the Hurrian language. Such an phenomenon might be considered to form a part of the Indo-Aryan expansion.
Contents
Linguistic context
Professor Eva von Dassow concurs with the presence of Indo-Aryan terms in Mitanni vocabulary, but cautiously advises against the notion of an "Indo-Aryan takeover".[2] Michael Witzel argues for the antiquity of the Indo-Aryan words attested in the Mitanni data, since they seem to predate linguistic developments attested in the Rigveda.[3]
In a treaty between the Hittites and Mitanni (between Suppiluliuma and Shattiwaza, c. 1380 BC), the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text (circa 1400 BC) includes technical terms such as aika (Vedic Sanskrit eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pañca, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, round). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper (Vedic Sanskrit eka, with regular contraction of /ai/ to [eː]) as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has *aiva; compare Vedic eva "only") in general.[4]
Another text has babru(-nnu) (babhru, brown), parita(-nnu) (palita, grey), and pinkara(-nnu) (pingala, red) for horse colours. Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world.
The Mitanni warriors were called marya (Hurrian: maria-nnu), the term for '(young) warrior' in Sanskrit as well,[5] formed by adding the Hurrian suffix -nnu;[6] note 'mišta-nnu' (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)".[7]
Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta",[8] Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear",[9] Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear",[10][11] Citrarata as Citraratha "whose chariot is shining", [12] Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra",[13] Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race prize",[14] Šubandu as Subandhu "having good relatives" (a name in Palestine[15]), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement". [16]
Attested words and comparisons
All of the following examples are from Witzel (2001).[17] For the pronunciation of the sounds transcribed from cuneiform as š and z, see Proto-Semitic language#Fricatives.
Names of people
| Transcription of cuneiform | Interpretation | Vedic equivalent | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| bi-ir-ya-ma-aš-da | Priyamazdha | Priyamedha | "whose wisdom is dear"; /azd(ʰ)/ to [eːd(ʰ)] is a regular development in Vedic and its descendants (Indo-Aryan in the narrow sense) |
| bi-ir-ya-aš-šu-wa, bi-ir-da-aš-šu-wa | Priyāśva ~ Prītāśva | Prītāśva | "whose horse is dear" |
| ar-ta-aš-šu-ma-ra | Artasmara | Ṛtasmara | "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" |
| ar-ta-ta-a-ma | Artadhāma(n?) | Ṛtadhāman | "his abode is Ṛta" |
| tu-uš-rat-ta, tu-iš-e-rat-ta, tu-uš-e-rat-ta | Tvaiša(?)ratha | Tveṣáratha | "whose chariot is vehement" |
| in-tar-ú-da, en-dar-ú-ta | Indrauta | Indrota | "helped by Indra"; /au/ to [oː] is a regular development in Vedic; ú specifically indicates as opposed to [o] |
Names of gods
From treaties of Mitanni.
| Transcription of cuneiform | Interpretation | Vedic equivalent | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| a-ru-na, ú-ru-wa-na | Varuna | Varuṇa | |
| mi-it-ra | Mitra | Mitra | |
| in-tar, in-da-ra | Indra | Indra | |
| na-ša-ti-ya-an-na | Nasatya(-nna) | Nāsatya | Hurrian grammatical ending -nna |
| a-ak-ni-iš | Āgnis | Agni | only attested in Hittite, which retains nominative -/s/ and lengthens stressed syllables |
Horse training
From Kikkuli.
| Transcription of cuneiform | Interpretation | Vedic equivalent | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| a-aš-šu-uš-ša-an-ni | āśva-san-ni? | aśva-sana- | "master horse trainer" (Kikkuli himself) |
| -aš-šu-wa | -aśva | aśva | "horse"; in personal names |
| a-i-ka- | aika- | eka | "1" |
| ti-e-ra- | tera- ? | tri | "3" |
| pa-an-za- | pańća- ? | pañca | "5"; Vedic c is not an affricate,[citation needed] but apparently its Mitanni equivalent was |
| ša-at-ta | satta | sapta | "7"; /pt/ to /tː/ is either an innovation in Mitanni or a misinterpretation by a scribe who had Hurrian šinti "7" in mind |
| na-a-[w]a- | nāva- | nava | "9" |
| wa-ar-ta-an-na | vartan(n)a | vartana | round, turn |
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